By now you should already know how proteins are naturally made. This Unit will introduce you to the articifial experiments molecular biologists do. Learn the enzymes used to control them and then play a game that uses your new skills.

You've got Levels 1 - 5 behind you. You know how a cell gets the right genes transcribed and translated into protein. This natural process is occuring even now in your body. However, what you may not know is the artificial process used by scientists to do similar things -- replication, synthesis, and other experiments not possible in nature.

These issues sometimes raise questions on ethics. Should man be allowed to play God with his genes, alter his appearances, and make himself better? There is constant debate. But this lesson is not to discuss morality, but to describe what scientists have done in the past already.

We are not completely sure how a cell determines which genes to activate. Certainly, there are many theories that have very convincing premises, but scientists had to find a way to extract the right genes for their experiments themselves, in a lab. This process is called gene amplification .

The process is an interesting one. A double strand of DNA is heated. In this heat, the DNA unzips itself into 2 separate strands. Remember that these strands carry the desired gene as well as many undesired ones. In order to extract the gene, the scientist must know some of the DNA coding to the left and right of the gene. Once this is known, multiple copies of these surrounding genes are sequenced. These are known as markers . The markers are added, along with DNA polymerase. The polymerase bonds the markers to their appropriate places alongside the genes. Then, the polymerase starts to work in one direction, duplicating the DNA from the marker to one end of the DNA strand. Sometimes, however, the enzyme works in the wrong direction, missing the desired gene entirely! But this is all right, since some of the enzymes will work correctly. The wrongly duplicated ones will be sorted out in electrophoresis . So we will ignore the wrong ones for now and assume that everything is done correctly.

The polymerase has made the gene as well as another section of unneeded genes double stranded again. They are reheated, and more markers are attached. The above process is repeated, so that all the correctly replicated strands will have only the correct gene be double stranded. As it repeats itself again and again, more and more of the correct gene will be synthesized in proportion to incorrect ones. In electrophoresis, which sorts out DNA by its length, the shortest piece of DNA is the desired one.

What could scientists want with this gene? Well, they could sequence it to determine the nucleotide order. So, this gene is divided into 4 groups, one for each base. One group is cut just to the left of an A nucleotide, another cut to the left of a T nucleotide, and so forth. Let's concentrate on the A group.

There are a lot of pieces of DNA in this group. There are also a lot of A's. What if there is more than one A base that has been severed? Then, there would be a lot of pieces that are of all different sizes floating around. To resolve this, scientists tag one end of the gene with radioactive phosphate. So if more than one A is cut, only the first will show up, because the rest of the DNA that has been cut away has no radioactive tag.

Remember the genes that were cut? There are many pieces of DNA now with radioactive tags that have been cut. Some are longer. But, since scientists know that the cut area is the location of an A base, when they compare sizes with the 3 other groups, they can determine the order of the nucleotides. Electrophoresis is the perfect way to do just that.

Electrophoresis is done in a gel, similar to normal gelatin. It is rectangular in shape, about 4 inches by 6 inches, and 1/4 inch thick. At one of the 4 inch ends, there are 8 indentations called wells that hold samples of DNA. The gel is placed in a clear box, filled with a solution to buffer acidity changes, and two electrodes at either side sticking into the buffer solution.

A power source is attached: with the negative end towards the wells, and the positive terminal away from it. Now, with the device ready, a micropipette is used to put small amounts of DNA sample into the wells. "A" is placed and labeled in a well, as are the rest of the 3 groups.

How and why does this work? As the electric current runs through, the DNA samples in the wells begin to migrate. Smaller pieces move faster, so when the current is stopped, the pieces that show up farthest to the opposite end are shorter. The first one is missed because there is no place to cut it to the left. Now, you can try this out yourself with a piece of unknown DNA. It has been cut for you and placed into four groups. You must use your mouse and place samples into separate wells (this gel only has 4 wells), and start the sequence.

The Cosmic Serpent

DNA & the Origins of Knowledge

by Jeremy Darby

The Cosmic Serpent is a personal adventure, a fascinating study of anthropology and ethnopharmacology, and a revolutionary look at how intelligence and consciousness may come into being. In a first-person narrative of scientific discovery that open new perspectives on biology, anthropology, and the limits of rationalism. Jeremy Narby reveals how startlingly different the world around us appears when we open our minds to it.

The Healers Handbook:

A Journey Into Hyperspace

by Stewart Swerdlow

A Journey Into Hyperspace penetrates the secrets of creation through the mysterious principles of DNA, the biological interface between spirit and matter which determines our actual physical characteristics and maladies.

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